Unit 6: Space and the Universe

• HS-PS2-4: Use mathematical representations of Newton’s Law of Gravitation and Coulomb’s Law to describe and predict the gravitational and electrostatic forces between objects. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on both quantitative and conceptual descriptions of gravitational and electric fields.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to systems with two objects.]

• HS-ESS1-2: Construct an explanation of the Big Bang theory based on astronomical evidence of light spectra, motion of distant galaxies, and composition of matter in the universe. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the astronomical evidence of the red shift of light from galaxies as an indication that the universe is currently expanding, the cosmic microwave background as the remnant radiation from the Big Bang, and the observed composition of ordinary matter of the universe, primarily found in stars and interstellar gases (from the spectra of electromagnetic radiation from stars), which matches that predicted by the Big Bang theory (3/4 hydrogen and 1/4 helium).]

• HS-ESS1-4: Use mathematical or computational representations to predict the motion of orbiting objects in the solar system. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on Newtonian gravitational laws governing orbital motions, which apply to human-made satellites as well as planets and moons.] [Assessment Boundary: Mathematical representations for the gravitational attraction of bodies and Kepler’s laws of orbital motions should not deal with more than two bodies, nor involve calculus.]

Appendix E

• PS2.B: Types of Interactions  

  • Newton’s law of universal gravitation and Coulomb’s law provide the mathematical models to describe and predict the effects of gravitational and electrostatic forces between distant objects.  

  • Forces at a distance are explained by fields (gravitational, electric, and magnetic) permeating space that can transfer energy through space. Magnets or electric currents cause magnetic fields; electric charges or changing magnetic fields cause electric fields.

• PS4.B: Electromagnetic Radiation  

  • Atoms of each element emit and absorb characteristic frequencies of light. These characteristics allow identification of the presence of an element, even in microscopic quantities. (secondary)

• ESS1.A: The Universe and Its Stars

  • The study of stars’ light spectra and brightness is used to identify compositional elements of stars, their movements, and their distances from Earth.  

  • The Big Bang theory is supported by observations of distant galaxies receding from our own, of the measured composition of stars and nonstellar gases, and of the maps of spectra of the primordial radiation (cosmic microwave background) that still fills the universe.  

  • Other than the hydrogen and helium formed at the time of the Big Bang, nuclear fusion within stars produces all atomic nuclei lighter than and including iron, and the process releases electromagnetic energy. Heavier elements are produced when certain massive stars achieve a supernova stage and explode.

• ESS1.B: Earth and the Solar System  

  • Kepler’s laws describe common features of the motions of orbiting objects, including their elliptical paths around the sun. Orbits may change due to the gravitational effects from, or collisions with, other objects in the solar system.

Appendix F

• Using Mathematics and Computational Thinking Mathematical and computational thinking at the 9–12 level builds on K–8 and progresses to using algebraic thinking and analysis; a range of linear and nonlinear functions including trigonometric functions, exponentials and logarithms; and computational tools for statistical analysis to analyze, represent, and model data. Simple computational simulations are created and used based on mathematical models of basic assumptions.  

  • Use mathematical representations of phenomena to describe explanations.

• Constructing Explanations and Designing Solutions Constructing explanations and designing solutions in 9–12 builds on K–8 experiences and progresses to explanations and designs that are supported by multiple and independent student-generated sources of evidence consistent with scientific ideas, principles, and theories.  

  • Construct an explanation based on valid and reliable evidence obtained from a variety of sources (including students’ own investigations, theories, simulations, peer review) and the assumption that theories and laws that describe the natural world operate today as they did in the past and will continue to do so in the future.

Appendix G

• Patterns  

  • Different patterns may be observed at each of the scales at which a system is studied and can provide evidence for causality in explanations of phenomena.

• Energy and Matter  

  • Energy cannot be created or destroyed–only moved between one place and another place, between objects and/or fields, or between systems.

• Scale, Proportion, and Quantity  

  • Algebraic thinking is used to examine scientific data and predict the effect of a change in one variable on another (e.g., linear growth vs. exponential growth).

Appendix H

• Science Models, Laws, Mechanisms, and Theories Explain Natural Phenomena  

  • Theories and laws provide explanations in science.  Laws are statements or descriptions of the relationships among observable phenomena.

  •  A scientific theory is a substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment and the science community validates each theory before it is accepted. If new evidence is discovered that the theory does not accommodate, the theory is generally modified in light of this new evidence.

• Interdependence of Science, Engineering, and Technology  

  • Science and engineering complement each other in the cycle known as research and development (R&D). Many R&D projects may involve scientists, engineers, and others with wide ranges of expertise.

• Scientific Knowledge Assumes an Order and Consistency in Natural Systems  

  • Scientific knowledge is based on the assumption that natural laws operate today as they did in the past and they will continue to do so in the future.  Science assumes the universe is a vast single system in which basic laws are consistent.